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A climate anomaly manifesting near the west coast of South America (chiefly the coast of Peru) every three to five years, normally beginning shortly after Christmas. Primarily characterised by a sudde

Ocean currents created by the Earth’s rotation and winds. The Ekman spiral is produced when there is equilibrium between the Coriolis force and internal vertical friction produced by wind.

In the course of the millennia, the Earth has experienced major climate variations. The most prominent were the ice ages. Various cycles can be identified, with periods of ca. 100,000, 41,000 and 22,0

Any comparatively flat piece of sea ice that is at least 20 m wide. Floes are categorised on the basis of their width: giant floes – width of more than 10 km very large floes – width of 2 – 10 km larg

A freezing phase following the formation of ice needles / ice wafers (“frazil ice”) and in which the ice crystals clump together, forming a soup-like layer on the water’s surface. Grease ice reflects

A land-based ice mass large enough to cover the majority of the topography of the underlying stony substrate, such that its form is mainly determined by internal dynamics (by internal deformations and

Ice micrographs, also known as microsections, show the forms of individual ice crystals and their relative positions. In order to produce an ice micrograph, a single segment of an ice core is cut into

The ice concentration is normally presented as a percentage (0 to 1 / 0 to 100%) or sometimes in tenths (0/10 to 10/10). A value of 0 means there is no sea ice, while a value of 100 (or 1 or 10) repre

Sea ice that has survived at least one summer melting. The majority of its morphological properties are smoother than those of first-year ice. Old ice can be divided into two-year ice and older, multi